Correlational Research

What is the defining characteristic of correlational research?

According to the text, a researcher might choose a correlational study over an experiment when the statistical relationship of interest is thought to be causal, but the independent variable cannot be manipulated for what reason?

What is the primary trade-off discussed in the text between internal validity and external validity in correlational studies versus experimental research?

What defines a study as experimental or correlational?

In a scatterplot representing data from a correlational study, what does each point on the plot represent?

A relationship in which higher scores on one variable are associated with lower scores on another variable is known as what?

What is the range of possible values for Pearson's Correlation Coefficient (Pearson's r)?

According to the text, a Pearson's r value near plus or minus 0.50 is considered to be of what strength?

For which type of relationship is Pearson's r a good measure?

What problem occurs when one or both of the variables in a correlational study have a limited range in the sample relative to the population, potentially making a strong correlation appear weak?

What is the 'directionality problem' in the context of correlational research?

When two variables, X and Y, are statistically related because a third variable, Z, causes both of them, this is known as what?

The text describes a study showing a positive correlation of r = 0.79 between a nation's per capita chocolate consumption and the number of Nobel prizes awarded to its citizens. This is used as an example of what concept?

What is the most effective way for researchers to address the directionality and third-variable problems?

Correlations that are a result of a third-variable are often referred to as what?

In a hypothetical study of the relationship between making a daily 'to-do list' and stress, a researcher randomly assigned some participants to make lists and others not to. What type of study is this?

What does a Pearson's r value of 0 indicate about the relationship between two variables?

Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the strongest relationship?

The hypothetical relationship between hours of sleep and depression, where both too little and too much sleep are associated with more depression, is an example of what?

In the hypothetical study on age and enjoyment of hip hop music, the overall correlation was r = -0.77. However, for the restricted age range of 18- to 24-year-olds, the correlation was 0. This illustrates what problem?

A study finds that people who exercise are happier on average than people who do not. The possibility that being happy gives people more energy to exercise illustrates which problem?

Which of the following is a reason a researcher might conduct a correlational study?

A study comparing the need for cognition between college faculty and factory workers, where the researcher did not manipulate the participants' occupations, is what type of study?

If a theory is supported by a true experiment (high internal validity) and a correlational study (high external validity), what is the benefit?

Do the terms 'independent variable' and 'dependent variable' apply to correlational research?

Why do correlational studies typically have high external validity?

A common misconception about correlational research is that it must involve what?

What does a scatterplot look like when Pearson's r is 0?

The relationship between stress and immune system functioning, where higher stress is associated with lower immune system functioning, is an example of what type of relationship?

What advice does the text give before using Pearson's r to analyze a relationship?

According to the text, a Pearson's r value near plus or minus 0.10 would be considered what size of correlation?

According to the text, a Pearson's r value near plus or minus 0.30 would be considered what size of correlation?

In the relationship between exercise and happiness, the possibility that a third variable, such as physical health, causes people to both exercise more and be happier illustrates what?

How can researchers use correlation to help establish the reliability and validity of psychological measurements?

According to the text, with the exception of reliability coefficients, most correlations found in Psychology are of what size?

If a researcher conducts a study by going to a shopping mall to ask people about their attitudes toward the environment and their shopping habits, what kind of study is it?

What is one way a researcher could design a study to avoid the problem of restriction of range when age is a primary variable?

In the media headline 'Lots of Candy Could Lead to Violence', what is the primary issue with the phrase 'lead to'?

A positive relationship between two quantitative variables means that as scores on one variable increase, scores on the other variable tend to do what?

When comparing Pearson's r values of +0.30 and -0.30, which statement is accurate regarding their strength?

Why would a researcher interested in the relationship between the frequency of cannabis use and memory abilities have to rely on a correlational research strategy?

Which two goals of science does the text state that correlational research allows researchers to achieve?

A researcher administers the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale to 50 American college students and 50 Japanese college students to compare them. Why is this a correlational study and not a between-subjects experiment?

What is the key advantage of conducting an experiment with random assignment over a correlational study when investigating a potential causal link?

If you create a scatterplot and notice the points are best approximated by a curved line rather than a straight line, what can you conclude about using Pearson's r?

What is the directionality problem in the context of a finding that people who are more conscientious are also less likely to be stressed?

What is the primary difference between a correlational study and an experiment in terms of what the researcher does?

If a researcher finds a correlation between watching violent TV and aggressive behavior, the interpretation is limited by the directionality problem and the third-variable problem. According to the text, how have researchers provided more confident evidence for this relationship?

When as its value moves toward -1.00 or +1.00, what happens to the points on a scatterplot?

If a study simply asked participants whether they made daily to-do lists and then measured their stress levels, it would be a correlational study. What is a possible 'third-variable problem' explanation for a finding that people who make lists have lower stress?