The Eye: I. Optics of Vision

What is the correct sequence of the three ossicles that conduct sound from the tympanic membrane to the cochlea?

The tensor tympani muscle constantly pulls on the handle of the malleus. What is the primary purpose of this action?

By what factor does the ossicular lever system increase the force of movement of the stapes, even though it reduces the distance of movement?

What is the total approximate force multiplication factor from the sound waves at the tympanic membrane to the fluid of the cochlea, due to the combination of the lever system and surface area differences?

The attenuation reflex can reduce the intensity of lower frequency sound transmission by how many decibels?

What is the primary purpose of the attenuation reflex, which involves the contraction of the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles?

Which membrane separates the scala vestibuli from the scala media within the cochlea?

On which structure within the cochlea does the organ of Corti lie?

What physical characteristic of the basilar fibers allows the basilar membrane to resonate at different frequencies along its length?

High-frequency sounds cause the basilar membrane to vibrate best at which location?

What is the phenomenon called where a fluid wave travels along the basilar membrane toward the helicotrema, initiated by the stapes pushing on the oval window?

According to the principle of sound frequency discrimination, what happens to a high-frequency sound wave as it travels along the basilar membrane?

What is the approximate number of inner hair cells and outer hair cells in the organ of Corti, respectively?

What percentage of the auditory nerve endings terminate on the inner hair cells, highlighting their importance in sound detection?

How are the hair cells in the organ of Corti excited?

Bending the stereocilia on a hair cell in the direction of the longer ones causes what to happen in the cell membrane?

What is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter believed to be released by hair cells at their synapses with auditory nerve fibers?

The endolymph that fills the scala media has a high concentration of which ion, which is the opposite of the perilymph?

What is the approximate value of the endocochlear potential, the electrical potential difference between the endolymph in the scala media and the perilymph?

The "place principle" is the major method for detecting sound frequencies. For which range of frequencies is the "volley" or "frequency" principle also postulated to play a role in discrimination?

Which of the following is NOT one of the ways the auditory system determines the loudness of a sound?

What does one decibel represent in terms of an actual increase in sound energy?

What is the typical frequency range of hearing for a young person?

In the auditory nervous pathway, where do second-order neurons from the cochlear nuclei primarily terminate?

The ability to localize the source of a sound is significantly affected by destruction of the auditory cortex on one side. Why does this not cause complete deafness in the corresponding ear?

How does a person primarily determine whether a sound is emanating from in front of or behind them?

Which part of the superior olivary nucleus has a specific mechanism for detecting the time lag between acoustical signals entering the two ears?

What type of hearing loss is characterized by impairment of the cochlea, the auditory nerve, or the central nervous system circuits from the ear?

What does a hearing loss of 30 decibels at a particular frequency mean when using an audiometer?

In an audiogram for a person with typical 'middle ear air conduction deafness' (e.g., from otosclerosis), what pattern of hearing loss is expected for air conduction versus bone conduction?

What is the primary reason that impedance matching is necessary for efficient hearing?

What is the approximate surface area of the tympanic membrane compared to the surface area of the stapes, which contributes to impedance matching?

For which range of sound frequencies is impedance matching provided by the tympanic membrane and ossicular system most perfect?

A reflex occurs to cause contraction of the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles after a latent period of how long, when loud sounds are transmitted?

What is the main function of Reissner’s membrane, even though it is so thin that it does not obstruct the passage of sound vibrations?

What is the approximate number of basilar fibers contained within the basilar membrane?

What happens to the lengths and diameters of the basilar fibers as they project from the base of the cochlea to the apex (helicotrema)?

How is the destination of a traveling wave along the basilar membrane determined for a specific sound frequency?

What is the primary ion responsible for the depolarization of auditory hair cells when their stereocilia are bent?

What is the phenomenon called where retrograde nerve fibers from the brain stem control the sensitivity of the inner hair cells, influenced by the outer hair cells?

How many cation-conducting channels are estimated to open in a hair cell when the stereocilia are bent, leading to depolarization?

In the central auditory pathway, where does the first crossover of signals between the two sides of the brain stem occur?

What is the consequence of destroying one's entire primary auditory cortex on one side?

The mechanism for determining sound direction based on the difference in sound intensities between the two ears works best for which frequencies?

Which brain stem nucleus is primarily concerned with detecting the difference in intensities of sound reaching the two ears for sound localization?

In an audiogram of an individual with nerve deafness, what is the expected finding for air conduction and bone conduction hearing tests?

According to the text, what is a common cause of nerve deafness for high-frequency sounds in almost all older people?

The power law describes how a person interprets changes in sound intensity. A one trillion times increase in sound energy is interpreted by the ear as approximately how much of a change?

What is the primary role of the large lateral portions of the cerebellar hemispheres in the context of hearing and motor control?

What is the effect of retrograde inhibitory signals that travel from the superior olivary nucleus to the sound-receptor hair cells in the organ of Corti?