Equity Valuation: Concepts and Basic Tools

50 questions available

Valuation Concepts and Model Categories5 min
Valuation seeks to determine the intrinsic value of an asset compared to its market price. An asset is undervalued when market price is lower than intrinsic value, offering a potential buy opportunity if convergence occurs. The three primary valuation approaches are Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) models, which rely on the present value of future benefits; Multiplier models, which use ratios like Price-to-Earnings (P/E) or Enterprise Value-to-EBITDA to compare relative value; and Asset-Based models, which calculate equity value by subtracting liabilities from the market value of assets.

Key Points

  • Undervalued: Market Price < Intrinsic Value.
  • Overvalued: Market Price > Intrinsic Value.
  • DCF models use present value of future cash flows (dividends or FCFE).
  • Multiplier models use price or enterprise value relative to a fundamental metric.
  • Asset-based models focus on the net asset value (Assets - Liabilities).
Dividend Mechanics and Chronology5 min
Dividends are a primary component of equity returns. Companies may issue regular dividends, special one-time dividends, or stock dividends. Stock dividends and splits divide the pie into smaller pieces without creating economic wealth for shareholders initially. The dividend chronology dictates who receives the payment: the Declaration Date is when the board approves the dividend; the Ex-Dividend Date is the first day the stock trades without the dividend rights; the Record Date determines the shareholders on the books; and the Payment Date is when cash is distributed. Investors must buy before the ex-dividend date to receive the dividend.

Key Points

  • Stock splits and stock dividends do not change total shareholder wealth.
  • Chronology: Declaration -> Ex-Dividend -> Record -> Payment.
  • To receive a dividend, one must buy the stock before the ex-dividend date.
  • Share repurchases are an alternative to cash dividends, reducing share count.
Dividend Discount Models and Gordon Growth Model7 min
The Dividend Discount Model (DDM) values a stock as the sum of the present value of all future dividends. For a single period, it is the PV of the dividend and the selling price. The Gordon Growth Model (GGM) assumes dividends grow at a constant rate indefinitely. The formula is V0 = D1 / (r - g), where r is the required return and g is the growth rate. This model requires that r is greater than g. The growth rate g is often estimated as ROE multiplied by the retention rate (b). Preferred stock, typically paying a fixed dividend without growth, is valued as a perpetuity: V = D / r.

Key Points

  • DDM Fundamental: Value = PV of expected future dividends.
  • GGM Formula: V0 = D1 / (Ke - g).
  • GGM requires Ke > g and constant growth.
  • Preferred Stock Value = Fixed Dividend / Required Return.
  • Sustainable Growth Rate (g) = ROE * Retention Rate (b).
Multiples, Enterprise Value, and Model Comparison6 min
Multiplier models estimate value using price multiples like P/E (Price-to-Earnings), P/B (Price-to-Book), P/S (Price-to-Sales), or P/CF (Price-to-Cash Flow). The P/E ratio can be based on trailing earnings (current price/past earnings) or leading earnings (current price/forecasted earnings). Enterprise Value (EV) represents the total cost to acquire the firm, calculated as Market Value of Equity + Market Value of Debt + Market Value of Preferred Stock - Cash and Investments. EV is often compared to EBITDA. Each model has pros and cons: DCF is theoretically robust but input-sensitive; multiples are market-grounded but rely on comparable firms; asset-based models are best for tangible-asset-heavy firms.

Key Points

  • Justified P/E is derived from fundamentals (e.g., GGM).
  • Enterprise Value (EV) captures the value of the whole firm to all capital providers.
  • EV Formula: Equity + Debt + Preferred - Cash.
  • DCF is sensitive to estimates; Multiples rely on comparability.
  • Asset-based valuation is difficult for firms with significant intangible assets.

Questions

Question 1

An equity security is considered undervalued when:

View answer and explanation
Question 2

Which of the following conditions is necessary for an investor to profit from buying an undervalued security?

View answer and explanation
Question 3

Which category of valuation models estimates value as the present value of cash distributed to shareholders?

View answer and explanation
Question 4

The payment of a stock dividend results in which of the following for a shareholder?

View answer and explanation
Question 5

Regarding dividend chronology, which date is the first day a buyer of the stock will NOT receive the upcoming dividend?

View answer and explanation
Question 6

A company declares a dividend. The holder of record date is set as Friday, March 16. The ex-dividend date is likely:

View answer and explanation
Question 7

In a one-year holding period Dividend Discount Model (DDM), the value of the stock today is calculated as:

View answer and explanation
Question 8

The Free Cash Flow to Equity (FCFE) model differs from the DDM in that it uses:

View answer and explanation
Question 9

Which of the following is a key assumption of the Gordon Growth Model (GGM)?

View answer and explanation
Question 10

In the Gordon Growth Model, if the required rate of return (Ke) is less than the dividend growth rate (g):

View answer and explanation
Question 11

Preferred stock which pays a fixed dividend forever is typically valued using:

View answer and explanation
Question 12

Calculate the value of a preferred stock that pays an annual dividend of 5.00 currency units and has a required rate of return of 8 percent.

View answer and explanation
Question 13

Using the Gordon Growth Model, calculate the value of a stock with an expected dividend next year (D1) of 2.00, a required return of 10 percent, and a growth rate of 5 percent.

View answer and explanation
Question 14

If a company retains more earnings to invest in high-growth projects, what is the 'dividend displacement of earnings' effect?

View answer and explanation
Question 15

Which valuation model is most appropriate for a company experiencing a temporary high-growth phase followed by a stable growth phase?

View answer and explanation
Question 16

A 'Trailing P/E' multiple is calculated using:

View answer and explanation
Question 17

The 'Justified Leading P/E' can be derived from the Gordon Growth Model as:

View answer and explanation
Question 18

Enterprise Value (EV) is defined as:

View answer and explanation
Question 19

Which multiple is most commonly used with Enterprise Value?

View answer and explanation
Question 20

An asset-based valuation model estimates the value of equity as:

View answer and explanation
Question 21

Which of the following is a disadvantage of Asset-Based Valuation models?

View answer and explanation
Question 22

A share repurchase is financially equivalent to a cash dividend if:

View answer and explanation
Question 23

In the context of the Gordon Growth Model, the variable 'g' represents:

View answer and explanation
Question 24

If a company has a Return on Equity (ROE) of 15 percent and a dividend payout ratio of 40 percent, its sustainable growth rate (g) is:

View answer and explanation
Question 25

A 'reverse stock split' will result in:

View answer and explanation
Question 26

The Price-to-Sales (P/S) ratio is often useful when:

View answer and explanation
Question 27

Calculate the Enterprise Value (EV) given: Equity Market Cap = 1000, Debt = 400, Cash = 100.

View answer and explanation
Question 28

Which of the following is an advantage of Multiplier Models?

View answer and explanation
Question 29

The two-stage DDM is best suited for a company that:

View answer and explanation
Question 30

When using the Price-to-Book (P/B) ratio, 'Book Value' refers to:

View answer and explanation
Question 31

Calculate the stock value using GGM: D0 = 1.00, g = 5 percent, Required Return = 10 percent.

View answer and explanation
Question 32

If a company repurchases shares, what is the likely immediate effect on Earnings Per Share (EPS), assuming net income stays constant?

View answer and explanation
Question 33

Why might an analyst use P/CF (Price to Cash Flow) instead of P/E?

View answer and explanation
Question 34

A 'Special Dividend' is best described as:

View answer and explanation
Question 35

If a stock's market price is 50 and its leading P/E is 10, what are the expected earnings per share (E1)?

View answer and explanation
Question 36

The 'Dividend Displacement of Earnings' suggests that:

View answer and explanation
Question 37

Which date determines the specific shareholders who are entitled to receive a declared dividend?

View answer and explanation
Question 38

What happens to the price of a stock on the ex-dividend date, all else equal?

View answer and explanation
Question 39

In a 3-stage DDM, the third stage usually represents:

View answer and explanation
Question 40

Which of the following is a limitation of the Price-to-Earnings (P/E) ratio?

View answer and explanation
Question 41

A key advantage of using Enterprise Value multiples over Price multiples is:

View answer and explanation
Question 42

In the context of asset-based valuation, 'intangible assets' like brand reputation are:

View answer and explanation
Question 43

Which term describes a stock dividend that is paid out of shares the company holds in its treasury?

View answer and explanation
Question 44

If the risk-free rate increases, assuming all else constant, the value of a stock in the Gordon Growth Model will:

View answer and explanation
Question 45

The 'Law of One Price' is the economic principle underlying which valuation method?

View answer and explanation
Question 46

For a company with no current dividends but expected future dividends, which model is most appropriate?

View answer and explanation
Question 47

Which of the following describes 'Alpha' in the context of equity valuation?

View answer and explanation
Question 48

A 'Control Premium' might be relevant when:

View answer and explanation
Question 49

If a company's P/E ratio is 15 and the industry average is 20, the company is potentially:

View answer and explanation
Question 50

What is the primary determinant of intrinsic value in the Dividend Discount Model?

View answer and explanation